Answer:

Numerous controversies and debates have taken place throughout the history of psychopathology (and its main classification systems) with regards to sexual orientation and gender identity. These are still reflected on present reformulations of gender dysphoria in both the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual and the International Classification of Diseases, and in more or less subtle micro-aggressions experienced by lesbian, gay, bisexual and trans patients in mental health care. The present paper critically reviews this history and current controversies. It reveals that this deeply complex field contributes (i) to the reflection on the very concept of mental illness; (ii) to the focus on subjective distress and we person-centered experience of psychopathology; and (iii) to the recognition of stigma and discrimination as significant intervening variables. Finally, it argues that sexual orientation and gender identity have been viewed, in the history of the field of psychopathology, between two poles: gender transgression and gender variance/fluidity.

Explanation:

International and regional human rights conventions protect all persons regardless of their sexual orientation or gender identity. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights lays out this key principle of modern human rights, declaring, “All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.” See The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (adopted 10 December 1948), UNGA Res. 217 A(III) (UDHR) art.1. Unfortunately, homophobic attitudes, failure to protect or investigate hate crimes and other abuses, and insufficient legal protection at the national level often prevent lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and intersex (LGBTI) persons from fully enjoying their human rights.

In recent years, international human rights bodies and civil society have taken definitive steps to raise awareness about the problems facing the LGBTI community and advocate for change. However, hostility toward sexual minorities has resulted in laws criminalizing homosexuality, pervasive discrimination by both public and private actors, and violence against members of the LGBTI community. The persistence of practices such as the forced sterilization of transgendered persons, the execution of persons identifying as homosexual, and the “corrective rape” of lesbian women indicate the need for significant advances in the protection and enforcement of LGBTI persons’ rights